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Seyed Jalal Dehghani Firouzabadi
In this article, the author will strive to review domestic cultural, social and psychological factors affecting the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. He believes that those factors will lead to the continuation of some behaviors in Iran’s foreign policy. Geographic, cultural, historical, social, and economic variables are major factors whose effects on foreign policy of Iran in general and particular cases have been studied. The author believes that to better understand Iran’s foreign policy, one must pay attention to the above variables along with the prevalent ideological and geopolitical variables. Despite changes in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran as a result of regional and global changes and developments, domestic variables have led to the continuation of Iran’s foreign policy. Finally, the author concludes that to acquire a more profound understanding of Iran’s foreign policy, it would not be wise to separate domestic and foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran because the Islamic identity and the values governing the Iranian society are the very significant factors determining the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
Keywords: Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Domestic Variables, Social Factors, Cultural Factors, Iranian History, Geopolitics
Introduction
The foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran, like other countries, is affected by domestic, foreign and psychological variables. Despite different viewpoints about various factors determining the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran, there is a consensus about the role of domestic social variables in shaping Iran’s foreign policy. For this reason, to understand Iran’s foreign policy conduct, we had better know Iranian society more closely. Social sources affecting Iran’s foreign policy encompass all specifications of society, nation and country of Iran. Iran’s foreign policy, like any other phenomenon, is not created in vacuum, but is a result of social, cultural, geographic and economic conditions of the country. National and social variables affecting the Islamic Republic of Iran’s foreign policy can be divided into cultural, historical, geographic, economic and social elements. This paper aims to identify social factors affecting the Islamic Republic of Iran’s foreign policy. Therefore, we will try to review the influence of cultural, historical, geographical, social and economic factors on foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. In other words, we will try to answer the basic question that how national and social features of the Islamic Republic of Iran affect its foreign policy. Do social factors lead to persistence of Iran’s foreign policies or change them? We will explain that social factors work more to stabilize Iran’s foreign policy because despite various domestic and foreign developments, the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran has enjoyed a certain degree of stability.
Geographic Variables
Regardless of geopolitical theories that believe geographical variables to be the sole determinant of Iran’s foreign policy, undoubtedly, geographical situation is among the most important sources affecting the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Geographical factors affecting foreign policy include geographical situation, borders, size and population.
1. Geographical situation
Iran enjoys unique advantages in terms of geographical situation.(1) Firstly, Iran has always drawn attention from big powers and played an important role in international equations. This situation has affected Iran’s foreign policy both directly and indirectly. On the one hand, since that situation is incompatible with neutrality and isolationism, the country should adopt an exogenous foreign policy and anytime that neutrality has been to the country’s benefit, it has not been respected by big powers. On the other hand, Iran’s situation in international arena has always exposed it to intimidation, interference and invasion from foreign powers that came to the region to protect their interests. This has led to kind of xenophobia in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran focused on national security, independence and territorial integrity of Iran. Secondly, Iran is center of mixed geopolitical regions which enjoy a superior role due to their strategic positions on land and at sea.(2) This has affected the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran in dual and even conflicting manners, sometimes giving rise to political, economic and military rivalries. Examples include rivalry between Iran and Turkey in Central Asia and the Caucasus as well as tension between Iran and regional Arab countries during the first decade after victory of the Islamic Revolution while in other instances it has led to bilateral or multilateral regional cooperation such as Iran’s membership in the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO). Thirdly, Iran also enjoys strategic geoeconomic situation due to being a crossroads for energy production and consumption poles of the world. The Islamic Republic of Iran is located between two major energy sources, that is, the Persian Gulf in south and the Caspian Sea in north. From east to west, it is center of two energy consumer regions of East Asia and Europe. Therefore, Iran is a crossroads for energy consumption and production centers and enjoys a superb position in terms of distributing energy resources. As a result of the said three features, we must adopt an exogenous foreign policy based on developing ties with regional and transregional countries.
2. Size of the country
The size of Iran which is defined in view of its area and population is not only a major factor for increasing national power of any country, but also plays an effective role in orientation and implementaitn of the country’s foreign policy.(3) This role can be viewed from various angles. Firstly, vastness and large population will turn Iran into a major regional player. This will encourage Iran to play a dominant regional and even global role in order to attain its rightful status in the Persian Gulf. Secondly, in reaction to that policy and strategic goals resulting from size of Iran, regional and transregional players will try to prevent Iran play its role by creating a balance. The balancing policy will be followed in three ways. Firstly, through signing security and military treaties between big powers and regional countries including Arab states of the Persian Gulf and, recently, Azerbaijan. Secondly, through direct presence and interference of transregional countries in the region to establish a security system without Iran, and thirdly, shaping regional treaties and alliances to counteract the Islamic Republic of Iran including the establishment of (Persian) Gulf Cooperation Council. The balancing policy has been reflected in Iran’s foreign policy in the form of various models such as counterbalance, détente, confidence-building, convergence and cooperation. Thirdly, having a vast area highlights the issue of common borders and securing them as part of the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran in the face of neighbors and other interfering countries. Having more than 8,731 km common borders has made border disputes to be one of the main challenges facing foreign policy apparatus over the past 27 years. Discrepancies about Shat-al-Arab were among major causes for Iraq to attack Iran in 1980, which have not yet been solved. Having common borders with the former Soviet Union during the Cold War era and under the bipolar international system was another problem that directly affected Iran’s foreign policy. On the other hand, misunderstandings between Iran and the United Arab Emirates over the three islands of Greater and Lesser Tunbs as well as Abu Mousa is undoubtedly an important issue for the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran at the present time. It not only affects bilateral ties, but will do so with Iran’s relations with other members of the (Persian) Gulf Cooperation Council, the Arab world and even transregional countries. Fourthly, in view of coherence of power elements and domain of national interests, Iran’s size has also led to a diversity of foreign policy goals as well as national interests. Multiplicity of interests and a diversity of national goals requires expansion of foreign relations and having an active diplomacy because Iran’s territorial areas have made the country focal point of geographical regions as well as many geopolitical and overlapping domains with varying objectives. It also offers the Islamic Republic of Iran with various national roles and we must make strategic choices vis-à-vis those roles or follow them simultaneously.
Cultural Variables
The rich cultural, civilizational and historical background of Iran as an ancient country which has played a decisive role in global history and culture has led to profound effect of cultural factors on the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran.(4) Culture, in its general sense, encompasses such elements as customs, traditions, religion, language, beliefs, morale, as well as common ideas, worldview and ideology, law, behavioral patterns, moral features, as well as intellectual and artistic achievements, making it one of the main factors affecting Iran’s foreign policy.(5) Each of the said cultural variables affects foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran at three national, individual and institutional levels.(6)
1. National characteristics and values
At a national level, culture contributes to the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran as a system of beliefs and ideas as well as a united whole. The general culture prevailing in the society influences the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran through its characteristics, common ideas, style, and identity. Moral characteristics of Iranians are defined as a function of positive and negative cultural traits, which differentiate them from other nations.(7) Some positive traits of Iranians include following a cause, justice seeking, hospitality, virtuosity, fighting despotism, seeking martyrdom, and looking forward to a savior. Following a certain cause will make foreign policy to stick to that cause, thus contemplating idealistic goals without due attention to realities. Fighting injustice and seeking to prevail justice will give rise to another type of justice-seeking mode of foreign policy. The support offered by the Islamic Republic of Iran for Muslim and non-Muslim oppressed nations of the world including liberation movements and efforts made to export the Islamic Revolution are somewhat the result of such cultural variables and national morale of Iranians. The resultant effect of the above four factors which are rooted in the religion of Iranians both before and after Islam, especially Shiism, is the adoption of a revisionist and even revolutionary foreign policy. From a behavioral viewpoint, establishing ties and developing those ties with a group of countries while refraining from developing ties with another group is a direct outcome of those factors. Such ideas as seeking martyrdom, looking forward to a savior, and fighting evil were quite evident during Iran’s war with Iraq. On the other side, negative cultural traits of Iranians also affect foreign policy of their country. Some of those traits include absolutism, hypocrisy and behavioral duality, lack of transparency, opportunism and seeking personal benefits, pessimism and distrust, unpunctuality, as well as not learning from the past. For example, absolutism will lead to extreme behaviors in foreign policy while unpunctuality and not learning from the past will result in losing opportunities in international arena. Two-facedness and dual behavior in foreign policy will led to choosing incompatible goals. Lack of transparency will end in an approach full of implications in foreign policy which will make others not trust Iran’s foreign policy.(8)
2. Political culture
Although values and elements of general culture are effective in shaping foreign policy, Iran’s political culture plays a pivotal role in this regard. Political culture as a conceptual, mindset system is bedrock of policy and indicates political value and ideas as well as concepts and beliefs in addition to viewpoints and approaches taken by Iranians to politics, power, society and government. Components of political culture in Iran take shape in the course of thinking, execution and management of politics and political affairs. Since Iran’s political culture stems from three ancient, Islamic and modern backdrops, it is crystallization of Iranian, Islamic and Western thoughts in the realm of rule and government. As a result, there are many conceptual systems that present models for Iran’s foreign policy. In general, political values of Iranians are inspired by the royal model belonging to civilization and ancient culture of Iran, the Age of Appearance model belonging to Islamic and Shiite culture and civilization as well as progressive, socialist and democratic models of the modern times.(9) Multiplicity of models and concepts as well as plurality of political values and norms which are different and even incompatible with one another will lead to duality of political behavior. Some elements of Iran’s political culture reflect that incompatibility which includes: individualism, despotism, pessimism toward the government, looking forward to a savior, determinism, following a cause, seeking what is right and just as well as independence and freedom seeking.(10) As we explained about the general culture, such elements and values directly affect Iran’s foreign policy. The most important consequence of Iran’s changing political culture is duality of foreign policy behavior. In addition, each of those components affects foreign policy independent of others. For example, individualism and despotism highlight the role of individuals in the process of foreign policy. On the other hand, following a certain cause as well as seeking what is right and just superimposes those tendencies on foreign policy. Also, statism, pessimism, looking forward to a savior and political determinism reduce political participation and role of public opinion in the process of foreign policy making.
3. Ideology and religion
Ideology meaning a collection of concepts and default ideas about social systems and behaviors or a set of ideas about political and social order and ways of implementing that order is another effective factor in shaping the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Of course, according to this definition religion is not the same as ideology, but since Shiism is used as a political discourse for judging social and political order, it has emerged and acts as a political ideology. Therefore, in the field of foreign policy, the Islamic-Shii ideology has been turned into a discourse comprising concepts through which events and foreign constructs are understood and which is center of actions and reactions as well as interactions of the Islamic Republic of Iran with the outside world. In addition to basic teachings of Islam and Shiism, other values, experiences, discourses, and ideas affect the role of the Islamic ideology in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Therefore, historical background of Iran, especially relations with the Western countries during the 19th and 20th centuries, pre-Islamic values and religious beliefs, anti-imperialistic discourse and inclination toward the Third World countries have played determining roles in shaping the Islamic discourse of Iran’s foreign policy. For example, justice seeking is rooted in pre-Islamic religious notions of Iranians. Abhorring the West and seeking independence stem from historical experiences and background of the Iranian nation while the principle of ‘Neither East, Nor West’ has its roots in non-aligned discourse of the Third World countries.(11)
Islamic ideology affects the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran in several ways. Firstly, that ideology has played a key role in defining national identity and role of Iran. The Islamic Republic of Iran enjoys an Islamic identity which imposes various transnational responsibilities and obligations on it within the framework of a multiple of roles. The national role of the Islamic Republic of Iran determines commitments, decisions, measures as well as duties and functions that are expected of the country under various subjective and geographical conditions. On this basis, national roles of the Islamic Republic of Iran include ‘defending Islam and Shiism’; being ‘anti-imperialist’, ‘anti-arrogance’, ‘anti-Zionism’, ‘fortress of revolution’, ‘liberating’, ‘supporter of the oppressed’, ‘a model government’, ‘inspiring the world of Islam’, ‘leader of the Islamic world’, ‘center of the world of Islam’, as well as ‘a revisionist government’. Secondly, the Islamic ideology has defined national interests and goals of the Islamic Republic of Iran by determining its national identity and role because national role of Iran reflects value-based norms and expectations which form its national identity and the country considers itself duty-bound to observe them. Therefore, national roles require common and special interests which the Islamic Republic of Iran follows in the field of foreign policy. In this way, the Islamic Republic of Iran has ideological and Islamic goals and interests such as preserving the mere existence of Islam and Shiism, protecting religious and revolutionary values, defending Muslims, seeking justice and fighting oppression, negating hegemony, colonialism and world arrogance, a well as supporting the oppressed people.(12) Thirdly, ideology creates a mindset which is used to interpret realities, messages and foreign environment as well as relations with other countries. Therefore, campaign of Palestinians against Israel, for example, is an instance of fighting between the good and the evil and the Islamic Republic of Iran is duty-bound to support it. Also, any kind of opposition to the United States is considered as opposition to the Great Satan and is legitimate. Meanwhile, the Islamic Republic of Iran will be neutral toward all wars among non-Muslim countries as being a struggle between two evils. This was Iran’s stance vis-à-vis Iraq’s war with the United States. Fourthly, the Islamic ideology determines major stages of historical, social and political development and provides a special picture of the present and future situation of the world according to which a particular outlook is delineated for the country and which determines strategies and general direction of the country at any given juncture. Therefore, during Iraq’s war on Iran the model of stabilizing the revolution and making Iran the center of the Muslim World was taken as the dominant paradigm instead of exporting the Islamic revolution. The paradigm of reconstruction period was to build a developed society and normalizing ties with other countries. Following May 23, 1997 and the rise of khatami to power, the foreign policy apparatus of the Islamic Republic of Iran did its best to come up with the paradigm of a model government within the framework of détente and dialogue among civilizations.(13) Fifthly, the Islamic ideology creates a moral and value system for judging policies and the conduct of the Islamic Republic of Iran and other countries. For example, according to accepted norms of Islam, Islamic government is the only form of legitimate government and other types of government are despotic and immoral. However, they enjoy various degrees of legitimacy with Islamic and Third World countries being more favorite than arrogant and anti-Islamic states. Therefore, establishing ties with them will be legitimate or illegitimate to the same extent.(14)
Historical Variables
Past experiences and memories of the Iranian nation from wars, intimidations, crises as well as cultural and civilizational advancements have greatly affected the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Background of Iran as a major, civilized and glorious power in the course of history leads to the mindset among leaders and people that the country enjoys a central status in the international system and is a focal point for strategic considerations onsiderations and calculations of the world.(15) This self-image on the basis of past realities has led to a kind of arrogance and lack of suitable assessment of ongoing developments in the international system. This, in turn, will prevent emergence of a realistic foreign policy based on the world’s realities. On the other hand, focusing on past glory will rekindle national self-reliance sentiments and end in the emergence of national, consolidated identity of Iran which while being Islamic, will be Iranian as well. The resultant effect of these two factors, that is, seeing one’s country as the centerpiece of international relations will be manifested in Iran’s foreign policy as independence-seeking, autonomous behavior in international arena. Of course, this motivation will be defined within the framework of the Islamic teachings as renovation and revival of the glory of the Islamic culture and civilization of Iran.(16)
Historical memory of Iranians will also affect the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Iran has been always facing foreign invasion by various peoples and nations and the memory of Iranian nation teems with many instances of occupation and invasion from Alexander the Great to Mahmoud Afghan and even the Allied forces. This ominous phenomenon reached its peak during the 19th century by the emergence of such new colonialist powers as Russia and Great Britain. Extensive interference of the said two countries in Iran marginalized it in international relations and also breached its independence and territorial integrity in the course of such derogatory treaties such as Turkmenchai and Golestan. Due to inability of Iran to face the superior military and economic power of colonialist powers, many such contracts were imposed on the country according to which unfair concessions were given to Western states. This was derogatory to an ancient, civilized nation and bolstered motives to fight foreigners. The United States’ interference, especially the role of that country in August 19, 1953 coup d’état and unbridled support for the Shah’s regime strengthened those motives. Defensive positions and opposite tendencies resulting from unjust relations with big Western powers led to a phenomenon known as Persian xenophobia. The logical result of that phenomenon was loathing foreigners, especially the West. This historical experience has had two types of effects on the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. On the one hand, it had caused Iran to be cautious in its foreign relations, especially with the United States and Britain because they believed that most of the problems nagging Iran are a result of relations with the ‘Great Satan’. In addition, all international developments are interpreted in such a way that as if all of them are against Islam. On the other hand, one of the most important reasons for seeking independence in foreign relations of the Islamic Republic of Iran, which was also inspired by the cause of the Islamic revolution, was xenophobia. Of course, we must note that this line of thought is also shored up by the idea of fighting arrogance, which is embedded in the Islamic ideology.(17)
Social Variables
Social variables affecting the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran include characteristics of Iranian society and social order governing it. Such characteristics as a transitional society; young population; racial, religious and cultural homogeneity; as well as ethnic and religious discrepancies are among the significant social factors that affect the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran either directly or indirectly. Those variables could be divided into three general categories including transitional situation of the Iranian society, ethnic and population composition as well as social groups.
1. Transitional situation of the Iranian society
One of the most important features of the Iranian society is its transitional state as a society passing through a traditional stage to an industrial developing one. The Iranian society has been grappling with the challenge of combining tradition and modernity. On the one hand, innovation has been an old aspiration of Iranians. On the other hand, preserving the traditional way of life according to Iranian culture, religion and customs has always been a preoccupation for Iranians. The Iranian society has not completed its shift from a totally traditional society to a modern and developed one. Therefore, it enjoys characteristics of both traditional and modern societies. The most important characteristic of a traditional, undeveloped society is legitimacy on the basis of tradition as well as ethnic loyalties; low level of political participation; political function of parties; under development of a civil society; and obeying political power. On the opposite, characteristics of a modern, developed society are rational legitimacy; national loyalties and interests; widespread political participation; and the emergence of powerful political parties on the background of a developed civil society. The current situation of Iran clearly shows that despite many advances after the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran, the Iranian society is still going through an intermediate state and enjoys characteristics of both (traditional and modern) societies. Therefore, transition in Iranian society means that the society is faced with five crises of identity, legitimacy, participation, influence and distribution. Although the Islamic revolution and the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran has greatly reduced such crises, they have not been totally eradicated. Transitional nature of Iranian society affects the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran in a number of ways. First, it plays a very important role in defining national interests and goals of the country because such interests and goals guarantee basic values of the society, which are also pursued in foreign policy. Therefore, duality between traditions and modern values will be reflected on national goals and interests. In addition, double standards will lead to the formation of two traditional and modernist groups, each preferring to pursue one certain category of values in the country’s foreign policy.(18) As a result, any change in foreign policy officials will affect definition of national goals and interests. Also, if they are discrepant on national priorities, foreign policy will be plagued with a crisis of national goals and interests. Developments in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran under the reconstruction and reform governments can be to some extent the result and a function of this social variable because technocrats and modernist intellectuals gained power and dominated foreign policy apparatus. Secondly, transitional conditions in the Iranian society are a determinant of general orientation of the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran and are considered a model for shaping foreign interactions. Inclination toward modernism and indigenized development will push the country toward a non-aligned approach in its foreign policy. It also necessitates revisionism in foreign policy which seeks to change or, at least, improve international order. On the other side, to achieve this goal, constructive interaction with the world and developed countries would become inevitable.(19) Thirdly, the effect of society’s transition from a traditional to an industrial state will be manifested in decisions and policies made by foreign policy officials. Traditional features of the Iranian society help an individualistic policymaking process while modern features of the Iranian society necessitate another type of democratic and pluralistic foreign policymaking based on group interests within the framework of national interests. Institutionalization of Iran’s foreign policy is also a function of the two aforementioned factors which are manifested in its method of formulation. Fourthly, five developmental challenges of the Iranian society greatly affect foreign policy and relations of the Islamic Republic of Iran with other countries. The challenge of identity will lead to adopting different and even conflicting national roles in foreign policy. This will end in conflict of national interests and goals. The crisis of legitimacy will cause national morale, meaning degree of support by people for foreign policies of the government to decline. The challenge of participation will make a democratic foreign policy, which is based on national demands and interests, to face problems. The crises of influence and distribution will lead to inability in realizing national unity. Therefore, national interests will be determined according to group and social interests. The said challenges will not only lead to new domestic vulnerabilities and reduction in national power base, but also pave the way for foreign interferences.
2. Population composition
Iran enjoys very important and even unique characteristics from the viewpoint of population and human factors, which can directly or indirectly affect the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. One of the most significant demographic features of Iran is that it is mostly young and this has faced the government with increasing demand for job, education, housing, development and economic welfare. This will require priority to be given to economic goals in foreign policy and making foreign policy economy-oriented. Achieving this goal, in turn, depends on adopting an exogenous foreign policy toward other countries including developed ones.(20) Also, women constitute around half of Iran’s population most of whom are young. Although this will not affect Iran’s foreign policy in a direct manner, it affects Iran’s relations with Western countries and international bodies. Criticism leveled by European countries and human rights bodies against the Islamic Republic of Iran on the pretext of not observing women’s rights has always been a challenging sphere in Iran’s ties with Europe. Another social characteristic of Iran is its ethnic, linguistic and religious composition. Although the Iranian nation enjoys ethnic homogeneity in some parts as well as religious, cultural and historical commonalities, that homogeneity has been fostered on a background of plurality. Ethnic, Linguistic, religious and even racial plurality is one of the social indexes of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Such social plurality may affect Iran’s foreign policy in several ways. Firstly, it fans the flames of sub-national competition, thus resulting in a variety of diverse and even conflicting social demands which may overshadow definition of Iran’s national interests. For example, when ethnic or religious minorities inhabit border areas, it adds to priority of safeguarding territorial integrity and national unity of the country within the framework of national goals of the Islamic Republic of Iran’s foreign policy. Secondly, they instigate foreign players to provoke centrifugal tendencies among ethnic and linguistic minorities, thus fanning the flames of separatism. Any reaction by Iran to such separatist feelings will have negative effects on its relations with the said countries. For example, a challenge in Iran’s relations with some of its neighbors has been inspired by those factors. The most prominent example of it was tension in Iran’s relations with Iraq under the Ba’athist rule which was a result of that country’s interference in Iran’s Kurdistan and Khuzistan provinces. In addition, Iran’s policy vis-à-vis the recent crisis between Iraq and the United States has been a result of the Islamic Republic of Iran’s concern about developments in the Iraqi Kurdistan. Also, one of the main reasons for adopting a policy of reverse union with Armenia and Greece has been ethnic policies adopted by the Republic of Azerbaijan and Turkey toward some ethnic groups in Iran. Thirdly, existence of various ethnicities and religious minorities in Iran has affected Iran’s relations with other countries as well as human rights bodies. For example, the issue of religious minorities’ rights has always been an important aspect of Iran’s relations with the European countries and human rights bodies. This issue has overshadowed Iran’s relations with European countries ever since the victory of the Islamic Revolution. Therefore, ethnic, religious and linguistic heterogeneity will highlight issues related to minorities and ethnic groups in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Anyway, apart from challenges emanating from population and ethnic composition of Iran, it will also provide the country with opportunities which will positively affect the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Young and developed manpower will increase Iran’s national power in economic, technological and scientific fields. Coexistence of various ethnic groups with a similar racial and language origin in Iran and neighboring countries could be a good ground for cooperation while it can also serve as a source of tension and challenges.
Social groups and classes
Social and class structure of the Iranian society highlights the role of special groups and classes in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. After the victory of the Islamic revolution, class structure of the Iranian society was changed. Due to prominent role of middle and lower classes in evolution and victory of the Islamic revolution and defending the country, their social and political status in Iran’s politics was increased. Also, social commitments and religious beliefs of those social classes gave rise to special political and economic demands one of which was giving priority to religions goals in foreign policy. Role and status of the middle class has increased following victory of the Islamic revolution. Relative economic and political development during the post-war era has paved the way for that class to be more present in political fields. The values and demands of urban middle class are mainly based on good economic situation. The most important effect of that social class is priority of economic and welfare objectives in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Also, a new capitalist class emerged during the reconstruction period which had its roots in middle and even lower classes. Economic interests of this upstart social class which enjoyed a lot of influence in political and power structure of the country greatly helped make Iran’s foreign policy economy-oriented. Undoubtedly, the most important class feature of the Iranian society, which has affected the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran, is role and social status of clerics. Due to direct presence of clerics at the top of power pyramid, Iran’s policy has taken on a religious hue. The objective manifestation of this reality in foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran is based on ideology and giving priority to ideological goals. Apart from that, a powerful social network of clergy is capable of mobilizing social forces in order to follow up the said ideological objectives in Iran’s foreign policy because people trust them and believe in them. For example, such institutions as seminaries, Friday prayer leaders and congregational prayer leaders play a determining role in orientation of the Islamic Republic of Iran’s foreign policy. Organized social groups are also an important factor in drawing up and determining foreign policy principles of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Influential groups which represent interest and positions of special social groups and classes put pressure on the government to realize their goals and interest.(21) The effect of social groups on foreign policy of Iran increased, especially during the reform period when emphasis was put on political development and civil society. Influential economic, commercial, labor and financial groups generating wealth and economic welfare including the Islamic Association of Bazaar, the Labor House, economic foundations as well as oil companies represent a major variable affecting direction of foreign economic and trade policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Religious and militant groups also impact foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The role of religious and clerical institutions such as religious seminaries as well as leaders of Friday prayers and congregational prayers in shaping foreign policy and behavior of the Islamic Republic of Iran with regard to the world of Islam is prominent. Militant social groups such as the Mobilization forces also have a lot of clout in foreign policies and decisions made by the Islamic Republic of Iran. Political parties and factions are a major source of influence on foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Political parties in Iran act much like interest groups and they reflect interests and positions of special strata and classes of the Iranian society. Competition among political parties and groups is often reflected in Iran’s foreign policy in the form of conflict of group interests which follow suit with special viewpoints and objectives. During recent years, foreign policy issues have been among the most important axes of rivalry and discrepancies among various political parties and groups within the Islamic Republic of Iran. Fore example, the attitude of those groups and parties to Iran’s relations with Europe, nuclear issue, crises in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as their effort to gain public support has been among major foreign policy indicators of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
However, the most prominent effect of political groups and parties on foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran is manifested within the framework of factional rivalries. One of the most important social and political characteristics of the Iranian society is powerful role and position of factions and factional policies in foreign policy apparatus of the country. The impact of political factions and factional jockeying on foreign policy is such that many analysts consider it to be the most important variable and determinant of Iran’s foreign policy. Just in the same way that approach of various factions to foreign policy is different and, at times, conflicting, their solutions for foreign policy problems are also different and sometimes at odds. Fractionation and factional rivalry affects Iran’s foreign policy in a number of ways. Firstly, when a faction gains power over other factions, its approach and discourse becomes the dominant approach of Iran’s foreign policy. Therefore, when a moderate faction holds sway, the foreign policy is accordingly moderate. On the contrary when the extremist or idealist faction prevails, the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran becomes more radical. Secondly, factional rivalries will also prompt the faction which stands outside the government to put more pressure on the ruling faction so as to prevent approval of foreign policies that would be against its viewpoints and approach. Factional rivalry often turns foreign policy issues into tools for bolstering status and realizing domestic political goals of political factions. The most prominent example is using the issue of US ties for domestic purposes including MacFarlane affair which occurred under the Reagan’s Administration.(22)
Economic Variables
Characteristics and sources of economic power in Iran greatly affect the country’s foreign policy. Economic variables affecting foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran can be studied in three broad categories of economic system, development model as well as energy resources.
1. Economic system
The economic system of the Islamic Republic of Iran is a mixed system in accordance with the Constitution and includes three state-run, private, and cooperative sectors. However, those sectors have never been in equilibrium and the balance has always been in the benefit of cooperative and state-run sectors. However, the size of the state-run part of the economy and role of government in economic activities has waned and waxed in different periods of time. Since the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979 up to the end of the Iran-Iraq war, Iran’s economy has been practically state-run due to excessive growth of governmental economic sector. However, after the termination of war with Iraq, the private sector was bolstered and government’s role in economic affairs became limited. The closed, state-run economy of Iran affected the country’s foreign policy in several ways during the first decade after the victory of the revolution. Firstly, role and importance of economic and welfare goals in foreign policy reduced. Secondly, due to government’s full control over economy which stymied growth of a real private sector, nongovernmental economic interest groups played an ignorable role in making foreign policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Differences in economic viewpoints of various political factions have not greatly affected Iran’s economic strategy and have not been influential in the determining the direction of the country’s foreign policy. Thirdly, a directed and state-run economic system was a major cause for isolationist foreign policy adopted by the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran. On the other hand, adopting a policy of economic liberalization and redirecting domestic economic system from a state-run one to an economic system based on reduced role of the government and strengthening the private sector during the reconstruction period had great effects on the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Privatization, trade and price liberalization policies, economic competition, encouraging foreign investment, as well as phasing out subsidies within the framework of economic reforms are all indicative of a market-oriented, open economic system in place of irregular and mixed economic system of past decades. The establishment of a liberalized economic system has impacted the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran in a number of ways. Firstly, it has made economy the pivot of Iran’s foreign policy according to which priority is given to economic and welfare goals and interests, which will overshadow political priorities. Secondly, due to strengthening the private sector within the framework of economic privatization policy, role and status of nongovernmental and even governmental economic and industrial players in foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran has increased. In addition, efforts made by the private sector as well as influential economic and industrial groups in the field of regional and global marketing have paved the way for the improvement of Iran’s economic and political relations with other countries. Thirdly, a market-based economic system requires an exogenous foreign policy because attracting foreign investment and connection to global economy and market is dependent on having good relationship with other governments and nations. Expanding Iran’s relations with European and Central Asian countries has been to some extent a result of such economic variables.(23)
2. Economic development model
One of the national goals and interests of the Islamic Republic of Iran, like other countries, is economic, welfare and technological development because providing people with a desirable economic situation is a prerequisite of developing software capabilities of the country. Although there is no doubt about the importance and necessity of economic and technological development, there are differing viewpoints about its approach and paradigm in the Islamic Republic of Iran. From a practical and theoretical viewpoint, three endogenous, exogenous and mixed development models could be discerned. Adopting each of those models will require a special type of foreign policy because nature, strategy and mechanisms of realizing any type of developmental model would require a special foreign policy approach. Endogenous development is based on import substitution as well as economic and technological self-sufficiency and self-reliance. By choosing this model, the country tries to achieve economic growth and developmence through optimal use of domestic and national resources without taking advantage of foreign and international facilities and resources. Due to independence-seeking logic of this model as well as its pessimistic approach to international economic order and hegemonic, unjust nature of international capitalistic economy, economic relations with the outside world and connection to international market will be minimized. This model will especially harm relations with capitalist system and prevents acceptance of foreign aid and capital. The government controls foreign trade and investment, shift of capital and profit, transfer of technology, as well as shift in manpower and production which only occur if they conform to predetermined goals of the government. Therefore, this development model played a great role in isolationist foreign policy adopted by the Islamic Republic of Iran. Adopting a development model based on import substitation during the first decade after the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran was an effective factor in preventing spread of relations with advanced industrial states. Of course, this factor cannot be considered as the sole reason for adopting this policy.
An exogenous model of export expansion, on the contrary, is based on a liberalized economic system, private investment, market function, maximal role for the private sector and a minimal role for the government. From the viewpoint of this developmental strategy, the most effective and most rational approach is to overcome the most important reason of underdevelopment, which is the vicious circle of poverty through attracting foreign investment as well as international technologies and skills to increase export of goods and services. Therefore, connection to international economy and global market as well as establishing economic relations with developed countries is an inevitable must. For this reason, since this type of developmental model is compatible with an exogenous foreign policy, its adoption will lead to expansion of political and economic relations with other countries. A reason for improvement and expansion of Iran’s relations with advanced industrial states within the context of an internationalist foreign policy after the end of war and during the reconstruction period was adopting an export expansion model by the Islamic Republic of Iran. A mixed development model is an amalgam of such strategic elements as import substitation and export expansion and emphasizes simultaneous use of domestic and foreign resources, opportunities and facilities. According to this approach, which is called ‘growth along with justice’, private management systems are used in line with the realization of general interests. The best elements of market mechanism and centralized planning are combined while foreign aid and capital is not totally repelled. Also, international economic system does not necessarily guarantee assimilation of national economy into international economy, but requires connection to global market and capitalist system. Naturally, choosing this economic development strategy is to a large extent, though not as much as the export expansion model, dependent on adopting an exogenous foreign policy and developing ties with all countries. It seems that this is the predominant economic approach adopted by majority deputies of the seventh Majlis, which will also affect foreign policy orientation of the next government of the Islamic Republic of Iran.(24)
3. Energy resources
Oil and gas are the most important revenue sources for Iran. Iran’s sole reliance on energy has given it a monocultural economy. Therefore, energy economy and politics play a determining role in economic orientation of Iran’s foreign policy. When it comes to drawing up policies and making decisions, oil and gas affect Iran’s foreign policy orientation in several ways. Firstly, since the government is heavily dependent on petrodollars, this will reduce the role of civil society and public opinion in foreign policy. On the other hand, the impact of international variables especially global energy market developments on the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran will increase. Secondly, due to their important position in national economy of Iran, oil and gas will increase the role of energy sector topped by the Ministry of Petroleum in the process of foreign policymaking. Thirdly, Iran’s oil-based economy will also increase the role of sub-national players of oil and gas sector in foreign policy. Formation of nongovernmental groups and companies in oil and gas industries, as interest groups that represent interests of certain sections of the society, will also affect overall orientation of the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Moreover, dependence of Iran’s economy on energy will have a dual effect on strategy and general orientation of the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. On the one hand, oil self-sufficiency may force Iran’s foreign policy toward isolationism along with revisionism and resurgence of revolutionary ideas. On the other hand, economization of foreign policy as a result of energy policies will be an effective factor in adopting an internationalist strategy and prompt the Islamic Republic of Iran to adopt a policy based on preserving the status quo. Therefore, a major discrepancy among various political factions in Iran after the victory of the Islamic Revolution has revolved around the above conflicting effects. Some political groups and factions call for a more limited role for energy policies in shaping foreign policy of the country according to the logic of political independence and economic self-sufficiency. Others still support an exogenous, conservative foreign policy for better access to foreign markets and capital by energy sector. The foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran after Iraq war indicates the dominance of the second attitude. Energy resources and economic policies based on them are very important in determining foreign relations of Iran with other international players. Iran’s monocultural economy necessitates special models for foreign relations. The country’s need to global markets to boost energy export, attract foreign investments to rebuild that sector, fix prices and secure energy supply, and take part in building energy transmission lines has prompted the Islamic Republic of Iran to adopt a conciliatory policy and normalize ties with other countries and international organizations. For example, oil price fall in the mid-1990s, played an effective role in developing cooperation between Iran and petroleum exporting countries located on the southern rim of the Persian Gulf as well as major oil consumer countries including the European Union and Japan. Also, the country’s efforts at attracting foreign investment to energy sector have had undeniable effects on relations with advanced industrial states. In addition, Iran’s policy of transferring energy from Central Asian states to other countries has had a great impact on relations between the Islamic Republic of Iran and those countries, China, India, Turkey and even Europe.(25) Energy and specially oil resources affect foreign relations model of the Islamic Republic of Iran by attracting attention of big countries to Iran. Since oil was discovered in Iran, it has been one of the most important factors for regulating Iran’s ties with big countries. Interferences by global powers in Iran to secure their oil related interests over the past 50 years, especially differences between Iran and Britain about nationalization of Iran’s oil industry have worked to form Iran’s foreign relations over the past few years. In fact, interventions of big powers in Iran have made Iran not to trust them and it has even culminated in xenophobia toward certain countries. Iran’s strained relations with the United States following the creation of the Islamic Republic of Iran were to some extent affected by those factors. In recent years, in addition to oil and gas, nuclear energy has emerged as a major determinant in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The country’s efforts to achieve a substitute energy source to replace hydrocarbons through building nuclear power plants and producing needed nuclear fuel for them has turned out to be a major challenge to the Islamic Republic of Iran’s foreign policy. Iran’s nuclear program has had contradictory effects on its foreign relations. On the one hand, it has enhanced relations with non-aligned countries such as China, Russia and even the Europe; while on the other hand, it has led to escalation of tension between Iran and the United States and has negatively affected Iran’s ties with some other countries including Canada, Australia, and even Japan. Also, despite many rounds of nuclear talks between Iran and the European Union within the framework of the Paris Agreement, there is still a high possibility of more tension in Iran-Europe ties that would lead to the collapse of the aforementioned negotiations.
Conclusion
This article has tried to explain how social and national factors and variables impact the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. After analyzing cultural, historical, geographical, social and economic factors, it was made evident that those domestic variables play a significant role in determining foreign policy decisions and behavior of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Therefore, despite changes in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran as a result of regional and global developments, the said national elements and characteristics of Iran have led to the continuation of the said policies. Therefore, despite some analyses about factors affecting the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran, which restrict those factors to ideology or geopolitical location of Iran, one must admit that cultural, historical and economic factors also play a pivotal role. In fact, the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran, like other countries, is multifaceted. Some factors lead to continuation of those policies while others disrupt the course of Iran’s foreign policy. Anyway, the role and impact of ideology as well as geographical factors in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran cannot be ignored. Apart from that, despite a realistic view which ignores the role of domestic elements in foreign policy, performance and behavior of the Islamic Republic of Iran’s foreign policy clearly demostrate that making a distinction between domestic and foreign policies, at least in this case, cannot be very realistic because there is a strong relationship between domestic developments and the conduct of the Islamic Republic of Iran’s foreign policy. More importantly, the Islamic identity and collective system of beliefs governing the society is a very important factor in determining the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
Footnotes:
1. See Seyed Mohammad Kazem Sajjadpour, Conceptual and Research Framework for Studying Iran’s Foreign Policy, Tehran: Institute for Political and International Studies, 2004, pp. 71-78.
2. For information on geographic and geopolitical features of Iran see Mehdi Minaei,
An Introduction to Political Geography of Iran, Tehran: Institute for Political and International Studies, 2002, Pirouz Mojtahedzadeh, “From Persian Gulf to Caspian Sea, From Geopolitical Ideas to Iran’s Realities”, Political-Economic Ettelaat, Nos. 109-110.
3. For further information about how size of countries affects their foreign policy see KG Holsti, Bases for Analysis of International Policy, Trans. Bahram Mostaghimi and Masoud Taromsari, Tehran: Institute for Political and International Studies, 1995, pp. 595-596.
4. For further information on how cultural factors affect foreign policy of countries see Valerie M. Hudson (Ed.), Culture and Foreign Policy, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997; Martin W. Sampson, “Culture Influences on Foreign Policy”, in Charles F. Hermann, Charles W. Kegley Jr. and James N. Rosenau (eds.), New Directions in the Study of Foreign Policy, Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1987, pp. 384-405.
5.Various definitions of culture have been presented each pointing to different components and elements of culture. For further information see Krober and Kluchhohn, Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definition, Cambridge M. A.: Harvard University Press, 1952.
6. For further information about cultural mechanisms of cultural influences on these three levels on the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran see Ahmad Naghibzadeh, “Influence of National Culture on Foreign Policy: Islamic Republic of Iran’s Case,” Foreign Policy, Vol. 13, No. 3, Fall 1999, pp. 637-650.
7. For further information on characteristics and mindset of Iranians see Mohammad Ali Jamalzadeh, Moods of Us, Iranians, Neiter Park, Florida: Kanoun Ma’refat Press, 1985; Mehdi Bazargan, Iranian Mindset, Tehran: Enteshar Publications; Graham Fuller,
Center of the Universe: Iranian Geopolitics, Trans. Abbas Mokhber, Tehran: Markaz Press, 1994; R. Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet, New York: Pantheon Books, 1985.
8. For further information see Sajjadpour, op. cit., pp. 7-9.
9. For further information about different models of Iran’s political culture see Mohammad Reza Gholamreza Kashi, The Magic of Speech: Cultural Mindset and System of Concepts in 2nd Khordad Election, Tehran: Ayandeh Pouyan Cultural Institute, 2000, pp. 49-67.
10. For further information on elements of Iran’s political culture see Seyed Mohammad Taqi Al-e Ghafour, “The Origins of Political Culture of Contemporary Iran,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 16, Winter 2001, pp. 35-60.
11. For further information see Homeira Moshirzadeh, The Role of Ideology and Islam in Iran’s Foreign Policy, unpublished paper, Tehran University.
12. For further information see Seyed Jalal Dehqani Firouzabadi, “Identity and Interest in Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran”, in National Interests of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Tehran: Research Institute of Strategic Studies , 2005.
13. For further information see Seyed Jalal Dehghani Firouzabadi, Discourse Development in Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Tehran: Iran Institute Press, 2005.
14. For further information about various roles and performances of ideology in foreign policy in general see KG Holsti, op. cit., pp. 567-571.
15. For further information see Fuller, op. cit.
16. Ruhollah Ramazani also believes that ‘freedom to act’ is the core concept of Iran’s foreign policy. See R. K. Ramazani, Iran’s Foreign Policy, 1941-1973; Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia press, 1975.
17. For further information about effect of historical memory and experiences of Iranians, especially xenophobia, see Fuller, op. cit., p. 292-309.
18. For further information on the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran in Central Asia see R. K. Ramazani, “Iran’s Foreign Policy: Both North and South”, Middle East Journal, Vol. 46, No. 3, Summer 1992, pp. 393-412.
19. Compare with Sajjadpour, op. cit., pp. 3-5.
20. For further information about the role and influence of population composition on the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran see Anoushiravan Ehteshami, “Iran’s International Posture after the Fall of Baghdad”, Middle East Journal, Vol. 58, No. 2, Spring 2004.
21. For further information about how social groups affect foreign policy in general see Juleit Karba, Jefrey S. Lantis and Ryan Beasley, “The Analysis of Foreign Policy in Comparative Perspective”, in Ryan Beasley et al. (eds.), Foreign Policy in Comparative Perspective, Washington: CQ Press, 2002.
22. For further information about the role and influence of political factions on the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran see Wilfried Buchta, Who Rules Iran? The Structure of Power in the Islamic Republic, Washington DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2000.
23. For further information on how the economic factors influence the foreign policy of Iran see Anoushiravan Ehteshami, After Khomeini: The Iranian Second Republic, London: Routledge, 1995.
24. For further information in this regard see Anoushiravan Ehteshami, “The Foreign Policy of Iran”, in Raymond Hinnebusch and Anoushiravan Ehteshami (eds.), The Foreign Policy of Middle East States, Boulder, Co: Lynne Rienner, 2002, pp. 283-309.
25. For further information in this regard see Ehteshami, After Khomeini, op. cit.
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